I also dedicate the work to my parents for their sponsorship and support. Lastly, my immense dedication goes to God almighty for making everything possible.

CHAPTER ONE

1.2 Nature and Scope of Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES)

Practical knowledge relates to doing. According to Ochiagha (1995) practical knowledge is learning without which mastery of an area of knowledge may be too difficult to achieve. Practical knowledge involves developing skills through the use of tools or equipment to perform tasks that are related to a field of study.

No society can achieve meaningful progress without encouraging its youth to acquire necessary practical skills. Such skills enable them to harness available resources to meet the needs of society. It was against this background that SIWES, otherwise referred to as Industrial Training (IT), was introduced in Nigerian tertiary institutions.

SIWES is a skill development program designed to prepare students of universities, polytechnics/monotechnics, and colleges of education for transition from the college environment to work (Akerejola 2008). Oyedele (1990) states that work experience are an educational program in which students participate in work activities while attending school. This work experience program gives students the opportunity to be part of an actual work situation outside the classroom. SIWES is a cooperative industrial internship program that involves institutions of higher learning, industries, and the federal government of Nigeria, Industrial Training Fund (ITF), Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC) and NBTE/NCCE in Nigeria. Students that participate in this work experience program include those studying library science, engineering, vocational, technological, and related courses in institutions of higher learning. SIWES forms part of the approved minimum academic standards in these institutions. SIWES is a core academic requirement carrying four credit units. This requirement must be met by all students in library and information science before graduation. It is also compulsory at National Diploma (ND) level and is scheduled in the NBTE curriculum. The training program is undertaken in the third year of a four-year degree program.

Eze (1998) points out that government has recognized the importance of SIWES through the establishment of the Industrial Training Fund (ITF). The ITF was established in 1971 and was charged with human resources development and training. Following the establishment of ITF, SIWES commenced in 1974 with the aim of making education more relevant and to bridge the yawning gap between the theory and practice of engineering, technology, and science-related disciplines in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. The specific objectives of SIWES were summarized by the federal government in its Gazette of April, 1978 as follows:

To provide an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial skills and experiences in their course of study
To provide students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge in real work and actual practice.
To make the transition from school to the world of work easier and to enhance students contacts for later job placement.

It is obvious that the reasons that led to the inception of the program some decades ago are today even more relevant due to rapid technological development, especially as it concerns Petroleum Engineering.

1.3 THE NEED FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

Theoretical knowledge alone would not usually prepare an educated person for the world of work. The worker or productive individual must not only be knowledgeable but must also be versatile in the application of skills to perform defined jobs or work.
The reality of the foregoing fact can be illustrated by using a simple analogy. While it is possible for someone to learn and imbibe all the available information on driving a car in the classroom, it is unlikely that the individual would, based on this knowledge alone, be able to drive a car at the first opportunity. On the other hand, someone else without the theoretical information on how to drive a car, on being told and shown what to do, followed by hands-on practice and supervision by an instructor, would at the end of the day be able to drive a car successfully. Of course, someone who has been exposed to both the theoretical underpinnings of driving a car and the hands-on experience of doing so would and should be a better driver! (Mafe, 2009).

Consequently, there are two basic forms of learning - education and training – both of which are indispensable to the productive world of work and the functioning of society today. In the illustration given above, the first individual had abundant education on how to drive a car; the second individual had received adequate training on how to drive a car; the third individual had the advantage of being able to combine theoretical knowledge with practical skills to become a better driver.

1.4 BENEFITS OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FOR STUDENTS AND STAFFS

The major benefits accruing to students who participate conscientiously in industrial training are the skills and competencies they acquire. These relevant production skills (RPSs) remain a part of the recipients of industrial training as life-long assets which cannot be taken away from them. This is because the knowledge and skills acquired through training are internalised and become relevant when required to perform jobs or functions (Mafe, 2009).

Several other benefits can accrue to students who participate in industrial training. These include the following:
• Opportunity for students to blend theoretical knowledge acquired in the classroom with practical hands-on application of knowledge required to perform work in industry.
• Exposure of students to the environment in which they will eventually work, thereby enabling them to see how their future professions are organised in practice.
• Minimization of the bewilderment experienced by students, particularly those from a non-technological background, pursuing courses in science, engineering and technology with regard to different equipment, processes, tools etc. available in industry.

• Enabling SET students appreciate work methods and gain experience in handling equipment and machinery which may not be available in their institutions.

• Preparing students to contribute to the productivity of their employers and national development immediately after graduation.

• Provision of an enabling environment where students can develop and enhance personal attributes such as critical thinking, creativity, initiative, resourcefulness, leadership, time management, presentation skills and interpersonal skills, amongst others.

• Preparing students for employment and making the transition from school to the world of work easier after graduation.
• Enhancing students’ contacts with potential employers while on training.
• Enabling students bridge the gap between the knowledge acquired in institutions and the relevant production skills (RPSs) required in work organizations.
• Making SET students appreciate the role of their professions as the creators of change and wealth and indispensable contributors to growing the economy and national development.

CHAPTER TWO

2.1 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF OIL AND GAS PIPELINES

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is common testing techniques in engineering used in the oil and gas industry the properties of a material, component or system without damaging it. This can also be called Non-destructive inspection (NDI). This is because NFDT does not permanently destroy the material being tested, hence it saves both time and money in the cause of engineering testing.

Popular NDT methods used in the oil and gas industry includes;

Ø Ultrasonic magnetic –particle testing,

Ø Remote Visual Inspection (RVI)

Ø Eddy-current testing

Ø Low coherence interferometry

NDT can be applied in the following field of engineering;

Ø Petroleum engineering

Ø Forensic engineering

Ø Mechanical engineering

Ø Electrical engineering

Ø Civil engineering

Ø Medicine such as in;

· Medical imaging

· Echocardiography

· Medical ultrasonography

· Digital radiography

Ø Systems engineering and

Ø Aeronautical engineering.

2.2 Engineering applications of NDT in the oil and gas industry

NDT is used in so many oil and gas settings that covers a wide range of industrial activities, with new NDT methods being developed at an advanced speed. NDT methods are usually applied in industries where a failure of a component would cause a lot of hazard or economic loss, such as in transportation equipment, pressure vessels, building structures, piping systems and in hoisting equipment.

2.3 Pipeline weld testing

In pipeline engineering, welds are used commonly to join two or more metals parts together. This is because these connections may encounter loads and fatigue during the material lifetime. What this implies is that there is a chance that they may fail if not created to proper specifications. For example , the base metal must reach a certain temperature during welding process, must cool at specific rate, and must be welded with compatible materials or the joint may not be strong enough to hold the parts together, or cracks may form in the weld causing it to fail. The welding defects such as lack of fusion of the weld to the base metal, cracks or porosity inside the weld, and variations in weld density could cause the pipeline to break.

To avoid this breakage, these welds may be tested may be tested using Non-destructive techniques such as industrial radiography, x-rays, ultrasonic testing or by magnetic particle inspections.

In a proper weld, these tests would indicate a lack of cracks in the radiograph, show clear passage of sound through the weld and back or indicate a clear surface without penetrants captured in cracks.

2.4 Levels of certification

Most pipeline Radiographic personnel certification schemes above specify three "levels" of qualification and/or certification, usually designated as Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3.

The roles and responsibilities of personnel in each level are generally as follows (there are slight differences or variations between different codes and standards.

Ø Level 1 are technicians qualified to perform only specific calibrations and tests under close supervision and direction by higher level personnel. They can only report test results. Normally they work following specific work instructions for testing procedures and rejection criteria

Ø Level 2 are engineers or experienced technicians who are able to set up and calibrate testing equipment, conduct the inspection according to codes and standards (instead of following work instructions) and compile work instructions for Level 1 technicians. They are also authorized to report, interpret, evaluate and document testing results. They can also supervise and train Level 1 technicians. In addition to testing methods, they must be familiar with applicable codes and standards and have some knowledge of the manufacture and service of tested products.

Ø Level 3 are usually specialized engineers or very experienced technicians. They can establish Radiographic techniques and procedures and interpret codes and standards. They also direct the laboratories and have central role in personnel certification. They are expected to have wider knowledge covering materials, fabrication and product technology.

2.5 OIL AND GAS PIPELINE RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

Pipeline radiography is the use of ionizing radiation to view pipelines in a way that cannot be seen otherwise. radiography's purpose is strictly viewing. Industrial radiography has grown out of engineering, and is a major element of nondestructive testing. It is a method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short X-rays and gamma rays to penetrate various materials. One of the major ways to inspect materials for flaws is to utilize X-ray computed tomography.

In Radiography Testing the test-part is placed between the radiation source and film (or detector). The material density and thickness differences of the test-part will attenuate (i.e. reduce) the penetrating radiation through interaction processes involving scattering and/or absorption. The differences in absorption are then recorded on film(s) or through an electronic means. In industrial radiography there are several imaging methods available, techniques to display the final image, i.e. Film Radiography, Real Time Radiography (RTR), Computed Tomography (CT), Digital Radiography (DR), and Computed Radiography (CR).

There are two different radioactive sources available for industrial use; X-ray and Gamma-ray. These radiation sources use higher energy level, i.e. shorter wavelength, versions of the electromagnetic waves. Because of the radioactivity involved in radiography testing, it is of paramount importance to ensure that the Local Rules is strictly adhered during operation.

(A) A pipeline undergoing radiographic testing

(B) experts conducting a radiographic test on pipelines

Applicability

Radiographic testing is used extensively on castings and weldments. Radiography is well suited to the testing of semiconductor devices for cracks, broken wires, unsoldered connections, foreign material and misplaced components. Sensitivity of radiography to various types of flaws depends on many factors, including type of material, type of flaw and product form. Both ferrous alloys can be radio graphed, as can non-metallic materials and composites.

Limitations

Compared to other NDT methods, radiography is expensive. Relatively large capital costs and apace allocations are required for a radiographic laboratory. Field testing of thick sections is a time consuming process. High activity sources require heavy shielding for protection of personnel. Tight cracks in thick sections usually cannot be detected at all, even when properly oriented. Minute discontinuities such as inclusions in wrought material, flakes, micro- porosity and micro-fissures cannot be detected unless they are sufficiently segregated to yield a detectable gross effect. Laminations are impossible to detect with radiography, because of their unfavorable orientation. Laminations do not yield differences in absorption that enable laminated areas to be distinguished from limitation free areas.

It is well known that large doses of X-rays or gamma rays can damage skin and blood cells, can produce blindness and sterility, and in massive doses can cause severe disability or death. Protection of personnel not only those engaged in radiographic work but also those in the vicinity or radiographic testing is of major importance. Safety requirements impose both economic and operational constraints on the use of radiography for testing.

2.6 Personnel Training, qualifications and certifications for radiographic testing

Successful and careful application of Radiography depends heavily on personnel training, experience and integrity. Personnel involved in Radiographic testing and interpretation of results should be certified and in most oil and gas industries, certification is usually enforced by law or by the applied standards usually according to international Standard Organizations (ISO).

The terms usually associated with this includes;

· Certification: Procedure used by the certification body to confirm that the qualification requirements for radiography has been fulfilled, leading to the issuing of certificates.

· Qualification:Demonstration of physical attributes, knowledge, skill, training and experience required to properly perform radiographic tasks

· Training

Radiographic testing training is provided for people working in many oil and gas industries. It is generally necessary that the candidate successfully completes a theoretical and practical training program, as well as have performed several hundred hours of practical application of this particular method they wish to be trained in. At this point, they may pass a certification examination. While online training has become more popular, many certifying bodies will require additional practical training.

2.7 Certification schemes

There are two approaches in personnel certification;

1. Employer Based Certification: Under this concept the employer compiles their own Written Practice. The written practice defines the responsibilities of each level of certification, as implemented by the company, and describes the training, experience and examination requirements for each level of certification. In industrial sectors the written practices are usually based on recommended practice.

2. Personal Central Certification: The concept of central certification is that a Radiographic test operator can obtain certification from a central certification authority that is recognized by most employers, third parties and/or government authorities.

CHAPTER THREE

PIPELINE LEAK DETECTION

PIPELINE HYDRO TEST

Hydrostatic (Hydro) Testing is a process where components, such as piping or pressure vessels are tested for strength and leaks by filling the equipment with pressurized liquid. For pipelines, hydro tests are conducted while the pipeline is out of service. All oil and/or natural gas is typically vented off, and the line is mechanically cleaned prior to testing.

Hydrostatic testing works by completely filling the component with liquid (usually, but not always, water), until a specific pressure is reached. The hydro test pressure often exceeds the designed working pressure of the equipment, sometimes by over 150%, depending on the exact regulations and code requirements, as applicable. The pressure is then held for a specific amount of time to inspect visually for leaks. The visual inspection can be enhanced by applying either tracer or fluorescent dyes to the liquid, as required or needed.

Hydrostatic testing is often required as a final proof test after repairs are completed and equipment is returned to service. While it can tell you whether or not leaks are present, a hydrostatic test does not necessarily ensure the integrity of the component beyond the time period of the actual test. On-going equipment integrity is best managed by an effective, integrated fixed equipment mechanical integrity (FEMI) program.

There are two additional methods of hydrostatic testing: water jacket testing and the direct expansion method. These are more often used for cylinders or vessels.

With water jacket testing, the vessel to be examined is filled with water, after which it is placed in a sealed container which is itself filled with water and connected to a calibrated gas tube. It is at this point that the vessel is pressurized for a period of time before being subsequently depressurized. Pressurizing the vessel forces water out of the test jacket and into the tube. Operators can then determine how much the vessel expanded. This method does cause some slight, yet permanent stretching to the vessel.
With the direct expansion method, the vessel being examined is completely filled with water. Then additional water is pumped in until it reaches the test pressure. The amount and weight of the water forced into the vessel, along with the amount not expelled from the vessel upon the release of the pressure allows the inspector to determine how much the vessel expanded.

Hydrostatic testing can be used to examine many different types of equipment, including pipelines, fire extinguishers, storage tanks, and gas cylinders. It is particularly useful for pipelines in situations where the use of inline inspection tools are not feasible.

Prior to conducting a hydrostatic test, one should consider the specific gravity and chemistry of the hydro test fluid both in terms of loads and corrosivity (e.g., chloride content of water), and how this may impact the equipment. For example, some equipment foundations and piping supports may not be designed to handle the loads. When hydrostatic loads are unacceptable, alternative test methods should be considered such as pneumatic testing or other gas leak testing. When using gasses (e.g., air or nitrogen), special caution should be paid to safety as gas pressurization results in significantly higher amounts of stored energy in the test subjects, which can result in catastrophic failures. It is best to use a customized procedure, created by competent personnel, for this type of testing.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 EQUIPMENT USED IN PIPELINE LEAK DETECTION

Hydrostatic testing of systems or components is most times referred to as “H” pressure tests. These tests of piping systems should be at a pressure of 135 percent above the maximum system design pressure, but in no case less than 50 psi. The line drawing in fig 1 shows a simple hydrostatic test setup and associated equipment.

Fig 1

Hydrostatic testing of piing systems or components should be conducted in an area that can be secured from all distractions.

The area should also provide the operator protection in event of component failure. When hydrostatic testing the piping system,set the equipment in an area that can be secured from all unwanted distractions.

The equipment required for hydrostatic testing includes a pump, two pressure gauges, two relief valves, a cutoff valve, blank flanges, gaskets and clamps.

PUMPS: There is no specific requirements for the type of pump to be used for hydrostatic testing. The pump must be large enough to deliver the required pressure and water volume to the piping system being tested. Pneumatic pumps are the most common type of pump used for hydrostatic testing .

Fig 2 and 3 show different pumps that can be used during hydrostatic testing.

Fig 2

Fig 3

PRESSURE GAUGES:When performing hydrostatic tests, use two independent pressure gauges. These two gauges will indicate actual hydrostatic test pressure. One of the two pressure will be the master gauge and the other will be the backup gauge. The master test gauge readings are used as the true hydrostatic test pressure throughout the test.

· Master Gauge: Master gauges are used to indicate the actual hydrostatic test pressures. The scale range of the master test gauge are usually greater than the maximum test pressure but should not be more than 200 percent of the maximum test pressure. Master test gauges shall have a valid caliberation label according to standard.

· Backup Gauge: A backup gauge is used to check and certify the accuracy of te master test gauge. Just like the master gauge, the backup gauge is also in line to the actual test pressure, but should not exceed 200 percent of the maximum test pressure. Backup test gauges shall also have a valid caliberation according to standard.

· Relief Valves: Relief valves provide for over pressure protection of the system or component, equipment and also the safety of the personnel.

The fig 4 below shows a hydrostatic gauge for measuring pressure during leak detection using hydrostatic testing method.

Fig 4

POST WELD HEAT REATMENT

Welding is an essential part of operating and maintaining assets in the petroleum (upstream, midstream, downstream) and chemical processing industries. While it has many useful applications, the welding process can inadvertently weaken equipment by imparting residual stresses into a material, leading to reduced material properties.

In order to ensure the material strength of a part is retained after welding, a process known as Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) is regularly performed. PWHT can be used to reduce residual stresses, as a method of hardness control, or even to enhance material strength.

If PWHT is performed incorrectly, or neglected altogether, residual stresses can combine with load stresses to exceed a material’s design limitations. This can lead to weld failures, higher cracking potential, and increased susceptibility to brittle fracture.

PWHT encompasses many different types of potential treatments; two of the most common types are post heating and stress relieving:

Post Heating:

Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC)

o often occurs when high levels of ambient hydrogen permeate into a material during welding. By heating the material after welding, it is possible to diffuse hydrogen from the welded area, thus preventing HIC. This process is known as post heating and should begin immediately after the weld is completed. Rather than being allowed to cool, the material needs to be heated to a certain temperature depending on the type and thickness of the material. It should be held at this temperature for a number of hours dependent on the thickness of the material.

Stress Relieving:

o By the time it’s complete, the welding process can leave a large number of residual stresses in a material, which can lead to an increased potential for stress corrosion and hydrogen induced cracking. PWHT can be used to release these residual stresses and reduce this potential. This process involves heating the material to a specific temperature and then gradually cooling it.

Whether or not a material should undergo PWHT depends on a number of factors, including things like its alloying system or whether it’s been subject to heat treatment previously. Certain materials can actually be damaged by PWHT, while others almost always require it.

In general, the higher the carbon content of a material, the more likely it needs PWHT after welding activities have been conducted. Similarly, the higher the alloy content and cross-sectional thickness, the more likely the material is to need PWHT.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Conclusion

SIWES plays a significant role in human resource development in Nigeria. Petroleum Engineering developments have put more pressure on the SIWES program to help students develop new skills. Students should be aware of what the present society holds for them and adapt accordingly. This can only be facilitated by Petroleum Engineering lecturers and practitioners, with adequate provision of required facilities. This emphasizes the need to expose trainees to industrial facilities. All depends on the competence of the educators and practitioners in industrial skills. This is a challenge to all stake holders in petroleum engineering human resources development.

5.2 Recommendations

I strongly recommend the following;

1. The ITF should ensure that the backlog in payment of student allowances is cleared urgently to remove the negative image being created for SIWES.
2. There is a need for closer monitoring of the SIWES function and activities in tertiary institutions by the Supervising agencies (NUC, NBTE and NCCE) to ensure that the scheme is properly implemented.
3. The supervising agencies in collaboration with institution, should evolve minimum standards in respect of SIWES and develop, monitor and review job specifications to guide the training of students for all SIWES-approved programmes.
4. The cooperation of employers in providing places for industrial attachment of students can be enhanced by more stringent penalties for defaulters.

5. Some employers need to be encouraged to provide meaningful training for students by allowing them to handle equipment and machinery while on SIWES

5.3 REFERENCES

1. Kwake, Prof. quoted in Mordell, D. L. and J. F. Coales (1983). A Proposal for the Developing Commonwealth. The Need for Engineers and Technicians and How to Meet It Effectively and Efficiently. Commonwealth Secretariat, London.

2. Mafe, O. A. T. (1991). Students Industrial Work-Experience Scheme (SIWES), 1973 – 1991: An Appraisal of Its Effectiveness and Efficiency. COREN-CODET Workshop on “Future of Engineering Education in Nigeria”. ASCON, Badagry, Nigeria.

3. Mafe, O. A. T. (1997). Harnessing the Potentials of the Students’ Industrial Work-Experience Scheme (SIWES) for National Development. First National Workshop on University SIWES for SIWES Coordinators, National Universities Commission, Abuja.

4. Mafe, O. A. T (2002). A Framework for Engineering Manpower Development in Nigeria. Conference Proceedings, National Engineering Conference on “Engineering Education and Practice in Nigeria”, Nigerian Society of Engineers. pp. 108 – 124.

5. Mafe, O. A. T (2003). Empowering Nigerian Engineers for Entrepreneurship. Conference Proceedings, National Engineering Conference on “The Engineer in the Nigerian Society”, Nigerian Society of Engineers. pp. 257 – 268.

6. http://www.twi-global.com/capabilities/integrity-management/non-destructive-testing/ndt-techniques/radiography-testing/

7. Funderburk, R. Scott, 1998. "Key Concepts: Postweld Heat Treatment." Welding Innovation Vol XV, No. 2.

8. Ahmed Khaleel, Krishan J., 2002. "Post-Weld Heat Treatment – Case Studies," BARC Newsletter, Founder's Day Special Issue, pp 111-115.

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Tuesday, 29 August 2017

A TECHNICAL REPORT ON STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME

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Dedication